The Response of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) to the Wave of Islamophobia in India
Keywords:
Islamophobia in India, Islam identity and Gulf Cooperation Council, Gulf states India Relations, Muslim minority repression, GCC responseAbstract
Islamophobia has led to discrimination against Muslims, including in India. Historical tensions rooted in religious divisions have evolved into systemic oppression under Hindutva ideology, leading to discriminatory policies, violence, and social exclusion against India’s estimated 200 million-strong Muslim population. This study examines the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) response to Islamophobia in India, as the GCC is India’s trading partner, focusing on the differences between its member states’ economic priorities and their shared Islamic identities. The GCC’s approach to the issue remains fragmented. Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Oman, and Bahrain prioritize strong economic ties with India, driven by interdependence in trade and energy. In contrast, Kuwait and Qatar have taken a more oppositional stance, condemning India’s Hindu nationalist agenda and highlighting human rights violations. The study uses a constructivist framework to explore the interplay between regional identities, national interests, and intergovernmentalism in the GCC’s decision-making process. The results show that the GCC’s response reflects the interests of individual member states, highlighting the intergovernmental nature of the organization. This pragmatic approach emphasizes the prioritization of economic dependence over actions based on collective identity solidarity. The study concludes that although Islamophobia in India poses a moral dilemma for GCC members, economic interests dominate their bilateral relations.
References
Ahmed, F., & Kohli, A. (2009). India-GCC Relation: Geo-Economics and Trade. Asia Pacific Business Review, 5(2), 116–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/097324700900500210
AJ+ (Director). (2023a, July 27). Why India Is Afraid Of Its History [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ETChI0L9jNw
AJ+ (Director). (2023b, September 15). Are Muslims Safe in India? [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PhrWJBeZCGk
Alhaiyaf, K. N. (2014). A Critical Analysis of the Legal Role and Functions of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). University of Sussex.
Alhasan, H. (2022, November 8). Islamophobia tarnishes India’s image in the Gulf | East Asia Forum. https://eastasiaforum.org/2022/11/08/islamophobia-tarnishes-indias-image-in-the-gulf/
aljazeera.com. (2022, June). UAE joins Muslim nations in condemning India over Prophet remarks. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/7/uae-joins-muslim-nations-in-slamming-india-over-prophet-remarks
Arafat, A. A.-D. (2020). The GCC Threats and Security Challenges. In Regional and International Powers in the Gulf Security. Springer International Publishing AG.
Azhar, M. (2004). Aspects of Economic Cooperation Between India and the Gulf Cooperation Council States. In H. S. Vasudevan, S. Prakash, M. Alam, H. Vasudevan, & Academy of Third World Studies (Eds.), The global politics of the Iraq crisis and India’s options (1. publ). Aakar Books.
Barnett, M. (2022). Social Constructivism. In The globalization of world politics (9th edition). Oxford University Press.
BBC. (2005, May 11). Gujarat riot death toll revealed. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4536199.stm
BBC. (2019, August 5). Article 370: What happened with Kashmir and why it matters. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49234708
BBC. (2022, February 21). Muslim di India: Keluarga korban yang dibunuh massa hidup di tengah ketakutan dan menanti keadilan. BBC News Indonesia. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/dunia-60430228
Bel-Air, F. D. (2022). Explaining the 'Demogrhapic Imbalance" in the Gulf States. https://gulfmigration.grc.net/explaining-the-demographic-imbalance-in-the-gulf-states/
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination. American Economic Review, 94(4), 991–1013. https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828042002561
Cafiero, G. (2022, June 16). Gulf States Take a Stand Against Islamophobia in India. Gulf International Forum. https://gulfif.org/gulf-states-take-a-stand-against-islamophobia-in-india/
CIA.gov. (2024). Middle East—The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/middle-east/
CNN. (2022, June 9). Nupur Sharma, Jubir Partai Berkuasa India yang Hina Nabi Muhammad. https://www.cnnindonesia.com/internasional/20220609121452-113-806817/nupur-sharma-jubir-partai-berkuasa-india-yang-hina-nabi-muhammad
Crockett, C. B. D. (2013). India—Gulf Cooperation Council Relations: Raj Version 2.0? https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA592766.pdf
DiTomaso, N. (2020). Discrimination in Work and Organizations. In N. DiTomaso, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Business and Management. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190224851.013.193
Dovidio, J., & Ikizer, E. (2019). Discrimination. In J. Dovidio & E. Ikizer, Psychology. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0233
DW. (2019, Desember). Pengesahan RUU Kewarganegaraan India Tuai Protes – DW – 12.12.2019. dw.com. https://www.dw.com/id/pengesahan-ruu-kewarganegaraan-india-yang-dinilai-diskriminatif-menuai-protes/a-51640591
Faisal, M. (2023, August 4). Who were the three Muslim men shot dead inside train by Indian armed guard? | Islamophobia News | Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/4/who-were-the-three-muslim-men-shot-dead-inside-train-by-indian-armed-guard
Fawcett, L. (2005). Regionalism from an Historical Perspective. In M. Farrell, B. Hettne, & L. van Langenhove (Eds.), Global politics of regionalism: Theory and practice. Pluto Press.
Febriansyah. (2023). ANALISIS FAKTOR KEBIJAKAN PEMERINTAH INDIA DI ERA NARENDRA MODI TERHADAP MASYARAKAT MUSLIM INDIA TAHUN 2014-2022. Universitas Islam Indonesia. https://dspace.uii.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/49849/19323048.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
findeasy.in. (2021, July 31). India Population by Religion 2023 | State-wise religion in India. Find Easy. https://www.findeasy.in/indian-states-by-religion/
Frayer, L. (2021, October 10). In India, boy meets girl, proposes—And gets accused of jihad. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2021/10/10/1041105988/india-muslim-hindu-interfaith-wedding-conversion
GCC. (2024). Primary law. https://www.gcc-sg.org/en/AboutUs/Pages/PrimaryLaw.aspx
Gottschalk, P., & Greenberg, G. (2008). Islamophobia: Making Muslims the enemy. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Guha, R. (2008). India after Gandhi: The history of the world’s largest democracy (Indian ed). Picador India.
Habibi, N. (2011). Growth in economic relations of China and India with the GCC countries: GCC TIES WITH INDIA AND CHINA. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 25(2), 52–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8411.2011.01311.x
Hadiwinata, B. S. (2017). Studi dan teori hubungan internasional: Arus utama, alternatif, dan reflektivis (Cetakan pertama). Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia.
humanrightswatch. (2019, February 18). Violent Cow Protection in India Vigilante Groups Attack Minorities. https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/02/19/violent-cow-protection-india/vigilante-groups-attack-minorities#_ftn193
humanrightswatch. (2021, February 19). India: Government Policies, Actions Target Minorities | Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/02/19/india-government-policies-actions-target-minorities
Ilu, M. D., & Wallace, D. (2017). Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). In D. Silander, D. Wallace, & J. Janzekovic (Eds.), International organizations and the rise of ISIL: global responses to human security threats. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Jaffrelot, C. (2011, March 1). How one non-violent Muslim changed the heart of the ideologue of Hindu bombers. The Caravan. https://caravanmagazine.in/perspectives/pacification-swami-aseemanand
Kocis, K., Upadhyaya, N., & Boorduddin, I. (2019, August 21). Repeal of Article 370: Implications for India, Pakistan, and the United States. Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/issue-brief/repeal-of-article-370-implications-for-india-pakistan-and-the-united-states-2/
Kozaric, E. (2023). Are Muslim experiences taken seriously in theories of Islamophobia? A literature review of Muslim experiences with social exclusion in the West. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 47(5), 907–940. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2023.2268179
Lean, N. C., & Esposito, J. L. (2012). The Islamophobia industry: How the right manufactures fear of Muslims. Pluto Press ; Distributed in the United States of America exclusively by Palgrave Macmillan.
Lingga, D. A. K. B., & Shara, M. C. P. (2022). PERLINDUNGAN HUKUM ATAS PELANGGARAN HAK ASASI MANUSIA INTERNASIONAL TERHADAP KAUM MUSLIM DI INDIA. Jurnal Kertha Negara, 10, 751–761.
Mansfield, E. D., & Milner, H. V. (1999). The New Wave of Regionalism. International Organization, 53(3), 589–627. https://doi.org/10.1162/002081899551002
Martin, A., & Pramono, S. (2011). FAKTOR-FAKTOR PENDORONG INTEGRASI REGIONAL: Studi Perbandingan Uni Eropa dan ASEAN. Spektrum: Jurnal Ilmu Politik Hubungan Internasional, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.31942/spektrum.v8i1.477
monday.com (Director). (2017). Babri Masjid dispute: Religion or politics? [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCxNOiXZJHA
Moravcsik, A., & Schimmelfennig, F. (2019). Liberal Intergovernmentalism. In A. Wiener, T. A. Börzel, & T. Risse (Eds.), European integration theory (Third edition). Oxford University Press. https://swh.princeton.edu/~amoravcs/library/intergovernmentalism.pdf
Muhaimin. (2017, April 1). Menyembelih Sapi di India Hukumannya Penjara Seumur Hidup.
SINDOnews Internasional. https://international.sindonews.com/berita/1193342/40/menyembelih-sapi-di-india-hukumannya-penjara-seumur-hidup
Najib, K., & Hopkins, P. (2020). Where does Islamophobia take place and who is involved? Reflections from Paris and London. Social & Cultural Geography, 21(4), 458–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2018.1563800
narasinewsroom (Director). (2022, June 12). Kelompok Anti-Islam di India Kenapa Bisa Tumbuh Subur | Narasi Explains [Video recording]. Narasi. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JKeOyZm-9bM
Niazi, S. (2009, March 20). 2007 train bombing: Indian court acquits 4 accused. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/2007-train-bombing-indian-court-acquits-4-accused/1423961
OECWorld. (2024). India (IND) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners. The Observatory of Economic Complexity. https://oec.world/en/profile/country/ind
Pradhan, S. R. (with Academic Foundation (New Delhi, India) & Observer Research Foundation). (2008). India, GCC, and the global energy regime: Exploring interdependence and outlook for collaboration. Academic Foundation in association with the Observer Research Foundation.
Quadri, S. (2022). India-Gulf row: Economics is key to countering BJP Islamophobia. Middle East Eye. https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/india-gulf-row-islamophobia-economics-key-countering
Ramesh, P. (2018, April 19). Swami Aseemanand: Myth of the Monk Who Preached Terror. Open The Magazine. https://openthemagazine.com/features/politics-features/swami-aseemanand-myth-of-the-monk-who-preached-terror/
Reskin, B. F. (2000). The Proximate Causes of Employment Discrimination. Contemporary Sociology, 29(2), 319. https://doi.org/10.2307/2654387
RigiLadez, S., & Khan, M. A. (2014). Trade relations between India and Gulf Cooperation council countries—An empirical Study. Internaational Research Journal of Business and Management, 7(13). https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=069d2d9aa55918464345a654c5a4fd2bdf366a42
Rosyidin, mohamad. (2022). Teori Hubungan Internasional: Dari Perspektif Klasik Sampai Non-Barat (Y. S. Hayati, Ed.). Rajawali Press.
Rowatt, W. C., & Al-Kire, R. L. (2021). Dimensions of religiousness and their connection to racial, ethnic, and atheist prejudices. Current Opinion in Psychology, 40, 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.022
Sarkar, M. (2017, August 8). India, Pakistan’s independence: Story behind one of history’s greatest mass migrations. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2017/08/08/asia/india-pakistan-independence-timeline/index.html
Scheidt, H. (2011). Neofunctionalism Vs Liberal Intergovernmentalism: The Creation Of The European Stability Mechanism And The Limits Of Political Theory [City University of New York]. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1107&context=cc_etds_theses
securitycouncilreport.org. (2024). UN Documents for Jammu and Kashmir: Security Council Resolutions. https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un_documents_type/security-council-resolutions/?ctype=Jammu%20and%20Kashmir&cbtype=jammu-and-kashmir
Solanki, V. S. (2024, February 21). The Gulf region’s growing importance for India. IISS. https://www.iiss.org/en/online-analysis/online-analysis/2024/02/the-gulf-regions-growing-importance-for-india/
Standard, B. (2024, December 30). GCC region 2024: India deepens ties with first PM visit to Kuwait in 40 yrs. https://www.business-standard.com/external-affairs-defence-security/news/gcc-region-2024-india-deepens-ties-with-first-pm-visit-to-kuwait-in-40-yrs-124123000433_1.html
stimson.org. (2020, April 28). Online Hate Speech Threatens India’s Image in the Gulf • Stimson Center. Stimson Center. https://www.stimson.org/2020/online-hate-speech-threatens-indias-image-in-the-gulf/
Sukma, F. M., & Asy’ari, M. (2024). Pengaruh Gerakan Hinduvta Terhadap Hubungan Bilateral IndiaPakistan Era Kepemimpinan Narendra Modi. Journal of International and Local Studies, 8(1). https://journal.unibos.ac.id/jils/article/view/3485
Ushama, T. (2020). ISLAMOPHOBIA IN INDIA: AN EXPLORATION OF ITS ROOTS, RISE AND HISTORY. Al-Shajarah: Journal of the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC), 25(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.31436/shajarah.v25i1.1030
Vayrynen, R. (2003). Regionalism: Old and New. International Studies Review, 5(1), 25–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/1521-9488.501002
Wahyudhi, N., Basyar, H., Mashad, D., & Ghafur, M. (2020). POLITIK ISLAM DI NEGARA YANG SEDIKIT TERDAMPAK ARABSPRING: ARAB SAUDI, BAHRAIN, QATAR, UNI EMIRAT ARAB DAN KUWAIT. In Many Faces of Political Islam in the Middle East: Arah Baru Gerakan Politik Islam Pasca-Arab Spring. Penerbit BRIN. https://doi.org/10.14203/press.294
Worldometers. (2024). India Population (2024)—Worldometer. https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/india-population/
WTO. (2022). World Trade Statistical Review 2022. https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/wtsr_2022_e.pdf
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Iyan Septiyan, Anton Minardi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
1. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license. This license allows others to remix, adapt, and build upon the work, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the same terms.
2. Authors may enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal’s published version of the work (e.g., posting it to an institutional repository or including it in a book), provided there is an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their personal website) prior to and during the submission process, as this can lead to productive exchanges and increase citations of the published work (See The Effect of Open Access ).
